Basic Facts About Tibet
Tibet , as has been noted, is a mountainous nation. India and Nepal lie to the south, while China , which has played an influential role in the history of Tibet , lies to the east. For much of its history, Tibet has been comparatively isolated. As a mountainous country, the population is dependent on herding and on cultivation of crops able to tolerate the high altitudes.
Buddhism came to Tibet comparatively late, starting in the 7 th century AD. The monasteries became centers, not only of religious life, but government. The monks ruled Tibet , assisted and supported by a feudal aristocracy. Although Tibet has been idealized as a spiritual paradise, in reality, it had all the problems and struggles of any earthly kingdom. People were enslaved, for example, although the Dalai Lama himself promoted reform and modernization.
Although the film rightly points out the nonviolence of the Dalai Lama, monks rebelled and did resist invasions by force, most notably the British invasion of Tibet in 1904.
As has been noted earlier, Tibetan Buddhism honors the Dalai Lama (lama meaning teacher) as a supreme bodhisattva, a pure soul. He is not , as is commonly understood, a reincarnation of Buddha. This issue is explained in the film itself. When a Dalai Lama dies, the leading monks undertake a long, careful search to find his reincarnation. Much of the film shows this search, culminating in the identification of the current Dalai Lama as a small toddler. He is then taken to the monastery at Lhasa , the Tibetan capital, to learn the spiritual discipline and philosophy of Buddhism.
While the Dalai Lama is probably best known to Westerners, please keep in mind that he is not the only spiritual leader of Tibetan Buddhism. The Panchen Lama, the reincarnation of a 17 th century Dalai Lama's spiritual mentor, suffered as much, if not more, under the Chinese Communist regime. He was imprisoned, tortured and humiliated for 15 years for publishing a denunciation of Chinese Communist rule in 1962. His successor, a young boy, is said to be living in Peking , but no one is certain of his whereabouts. Moreover, the Tibetans identify another boy as the true Panchen Lama.
Tibet and China
The Chinese governments claim Tibet because in their view it has always been part of China and secondly because they have "modernized" a backward, oppressive, superstitious regime.
As for the first claim, it is certainly true that China and Tibet have had close ties. The ruling families of China and Tibet intermarried, and both the Chinese and Tibetans were conquered by the Mongols in the 13 th century. By 1387, the Ming, a Chinese dynasty, had assumed control of China . A powerful nobility and Buddhist spiritual leaders, most notably the Dalai Lama, governed Tibet . In 1720, a Dalai Lama was assassinated and a dispute arose over his successor. Claiming that he was acting in a spirit of righteous retribution, the Chinese emperor Kangxi invaded and conquered Tibet . From the 18 th to the early 20 th century, ambans , or governors, ruled Tibet on behalf of China . As a rule, these ambans did not interfere with the basic religious structures of Tibet . In 1911, largely because of political breakdown in China itself, Tibet attained independence. Tibet remained an independent country, under the authority of the Dalai Lama, until 1951.
China became a Communist state under the rule of Mao Zedong in 1948. Although the Communists were officially "anti-imperialist", they re-asserted control over the Tibetans within three years of their own revolution. Their rationale: they were re-uniting all parts of the motherland after China 's degradation at the hands of Western powers and they were benefiting Tibet by introducing the superior rule of Marxism.
The Communist government, unfortunately, introduced conflict and upheaval. Communist cadres destroyed monasteries, major centers of Tibetan cultural and national life. The new government also destroyed the basic farming economy of Tibet by insisting on the cultivation of wheat, which was totally unsuitable for the climate. Above all, it imposed Marxist ideology in place of traditional religious values.
The policy of the Chinese government toward Tibet has moderated since the death of Mao. Traditional religious practices are now allowed, though Tibetans in exile claim that the monks know more about Marxism than they do about Buddhism. Nevertheless, waves of persecutions do take place and the Chinese government forbids images of the Dalai Lama.
The general population remains abysmally poor. Moreover, a more peaceful, though no less culturally disruptive, transformation is taking place because of the settlement of large numbers of Sichuanese, Chinese from the impoverished western province of Sichuan. They have found in Tibet an opportunity to make money, often as restaurant owners and truck drivers. Most of them plan to return to China as soon as they have made enough money.
It is very important to understand the motives and perceptions of the Chinese government. A proud and great civilization, the Chinese had suffered horribly during the 19 th and early 20 th centuries from internal unrest and from incursions by foreign powers. Their attitude toward Tibet , in part, stems from their traumatic historical memories. A few events that have had a powerful influence on the Chinese:
• From 1839-1841, the British waged war to make the Chinese to buy opium from their colony in India . Although opium addiction was a major social problem in China and caused great suffering, the British saw this drug as an essential source of income for their economy in India . The British defeated the Chinese and forced them to re-open this lethal trade. The Chinese also were forced to cede Hong Kong to British as a trading base. The French and the Americans, taking advantage of Chinese weakness, also forced trade concessions.
• In the 1900, the Europeans brutally suppressed the so-called Boxer Rebellion , another doomed effort to drive them out. A savage invasion by the Japanese in the 1930's, as well as internal civil wars further ravaged China .
• Finally, Tibet alone did not suffer from Communism. The excesses of the Communist regime have resulted in the death or imprisonment of countless Chinese, including ardent Marxists. China took decades to recover from radical campaigns by the Communist government to industrialize China (The Great Leap Forward), and to impose cultural purity (the Cultural Revolution). The film To Live is a powerful portrayal of the sufferings of the Chinese people under Mao.
Tibet and the West
Western views of Tibet have generally alternated between ignorant loathing and equally ignorant idealization. To the handful of Catholic missionaries who first encountered Tibet in the 16 th and 17 th centuries, Tibetan Buddhism was "paganism". To many 19 th and early 20 th century Protestant missionaries and imperialist ideologues, Tibetan Buddhism was little better than an eastern version of Catholicism, superstitious and idolatrous.
Tibet also was a constant source of anxiety to the British during the 19 th century. The British were terrified that the Russians would try to invade India , their wealthiest and most strategic possession. Because of rumors that Russian agents had made contact with the Dalai Lama, the British invaded Tibet in 1904, though finding little of either strategic or economic interest, they soon withdrew.
After World War I, many Europeans and Americans became disillusioned with Western values and Western religions. Tibet became a magical, unspoiled land, populated by Buddhist sages and gentle, peace-loving people with amazing spiritual powers. The Hollywood fad for Tibet is the most current manifestation. Films like Seven Years in Tibet with Brad Pitt and the vocal support of Buddhist converts like Richard Gere for the Dalai Lama are prominent examples. But it remains questionable whether most Westerners really understand Tibet on its own terms, not as a projection of romantic fantasy or spiritual restlessness.